Week_00_Overview

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Week 00 (Zero) - Overview of the Learning Sciences

Readings:
Links to the books for this week's chapters are located on the Home Page. (I will post resources here, or email them to the class, as you will not have access to D2L until May 28, 2012.) After reading the materials, please contribute to this wiki by answering the questions below.

Readings for this week:
 * 1) How People Learn (HPL): Chapter 1
 * 2) How Students Learn (HSL): Chapter 1, 5, 9

What are the learning sciences?
According to Bransford, Brown, Cocking, Donovan, and Pellegrino (2000) in “How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition” (2000) cognitive science is the science of learning. However, this can be viewed as an umbrella science because within cognitive science as it pertains to education you will find “anthropology, linguistics, philosophy, developmental psychology, computer science, neuroscience, and several branches” (p.8). The science of learning has three main focuses: learning with understanding, preexisting knowledge, and active learning (Bransford et al., 2000). Learning with understanding emphasizes that student are not just memorizing facts, but gain the ability to take their new found knowledge and utilize said knowledge in other contexts as well as practical application. For instance, when a child can learn about a topic in class or one aspect of their life and apply it to another aspect of their life. The development of the learning sciences directly effects education. The ideas presented in the research "underscores the importance of rethinking what is taught, how it is taught, and how learning is assessed" (Bransford et al., 2000 p. 13),

Learning with understanding is important for students to be able to make the leap from the familiar, to be able to think outside the box and become not just learners, but thinkers capable of creative solutions to complex problems.

Preexisting knowledge is the information that individuals already possess. Students "come to formal education with a range of prior knowledge, skills, beliefs and concepts that significantly influence what they notice about the environment and how they organize and interpret it" (Bransford et al., 2000, p.10). According to Bransford et al. (2000), "people construct new knowledge and understandings based on what they already know and believe," (p. 10) and teachers must consider this preexisting knowledge when planning learning experiences for their students. As illustrated by Donovan and Bransford in the Introduction of //How Students Learn: History, Mathematics, and Science in the Classroom// (2005), students may do well on classroom exams because they learned the material, but may not apply learned concepts to real life situations because their preconceptions were never addressed, leaving them to use their "experience-based preconceptions" (p. 5) during real life situations.

Active learning emphasizes the importance of people taking control of their own learning. It is important that people recognize when they understand and when they need more information (p.12). Teachers who use the meta-cognitive approach in the classroom aid students in focusing on sense-making, self-assessment and reflection on ideas worked on and those that need improvement. Meta-cognition also involves learning and developing processes needed to learn and understand information (p. 10). Subject area experts will readily employ strategies to identify patterns and cross-cutting concepts, while novices will see information as discrete items (p. 8).

The learning sciences can be quite varied, as described on pg 8 of //How People Learn//. But more simplistically, learning science is a development from behavioral science. On page 6 of //How People Learn//, the authors describe how cognitive science developed from a scientific study of observable behaviors to an approach to learning from a more multidisciplinary approach. Early behaviorists wanted to maintain the scientific study of psychology and asserted that study must be restricted to the study of observable behaviors and control of those behaviors. Because "learning" isn't always observable, there was a shift toward a less radical form of behaviorism that preserves scientific rigor and allowed for hypotheses about internal states.

The science of learning focuses on learning with understanding, the process of knowing, and encouraging people to be in charge of their own learning (Bransford etal, 2000). Learning with understanding means that students learn facts connected with important concepts and not in isolation. The process of knowing relates to the fact that students come to the classroom with prior experiences that can affect their learning. When students take charge of their own learning, it is important to encourage self-assessments and reflections.

According to Bransford, Brown, Cocking, Donovan, and Pellegrino (2000) “ the goal of education is better conceived as helping students develop the intellectual tools and learning strategies needed to acquire the knowledge that allows people to think productively about history, science and technology, social phenomena, mathematics, and the arts”. The goal of the learning sciences then is to aid in this process. Bransford, Brown, Cocking, Donovan, and Pellegrino (2000) say the new science of learning is beginning to provide knowledge to improve significantly people’s abilities to become active learners who seek to understand complex subject matter and are better prepared to transfer what they have learned to new problems and settings”. It is not surprising them that the approaches and specific areas of study have been so widely varied.

Why are the learning sciences important to educators?
Educators must continually strive to become more educated themselves. Keeping up with current trends and educational practices is an absolute in order to better educate future students. As stated in “How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition” (2000), “The emerging science of learning underscores the importance of rethinking what is taught, how it is taught, and how learning is assessed (p.13)". Understanding how people learn is important because it should be the driving force in education. When developing lessons, designing schools, curriculum, and policy, educators need to be well versed in the process of learning. If a disconnect develops between the process of learning and the method of instruction, students in our classrooms will not be able to effectively transfer knowledge to the real world. It is suggested that the classroom and instruction should be viewed from a learner, knowledge, assessment, and community perspective (Bransford et al., 2000). Each of these perspectives allows the educator to evaluate the learning process so that learning is optimized.

The learning sciences have great implications for teaching. Teachers must understand that children come into the classroom filled with an existing body of knowledge and misconceptions that will impact their learning. By looking at the learner as a package of previous experiences, the educator can begin a starting point of the learning process. "The teacher must actively inquire into students' thinking, creating classroom tasks and conditions under which student thinking can be revealed" (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 19). That is because if "students initial thoughts are ignored, the understandings that they develop can be very different from what the teacher intends" (p.10). Therefore, teachers should be offered professional development opportunities to learn how to use formative assessments to identify student understanding and misconceptions, as well as ways to build on students' preexisting knowledge in order to enhance student learning (Bransford et al., 2000).

Through the process of traditional instruction, educators are missing groups of students who could learn more effectively in alternative methodologies. Teachers can approach the teaching of content through methods that allow all students to learn, and encourage students to become "self-sustaining, lifelong learners" (Bransford et al., 2000 p. 5). The goal of education should not be to memorize, but rather to show students how to construct and obtain knowledge, transfer the knowledge to a new situation, and then problem solve and ask meaningful questions that connects new and existing knowledge (Bransford et al., 2000). This idea is directly related to the principle outlined in both How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School and How Students Learn: History, Mathematics, and Science in the Classroom that the essential role of factual knowledge and conceptual frameworks is to organize and facilitate retrieval and application.

The learning sciences also encourage students and teachers to be active in the learning process. Teachers should model the use of meta-cognition within each discipline. This allows the students to experiences how to actively engage in the specific content. (Donovan & Bransford, 2005). Teachers need to understand how to develop their students ability to think critically about a subject, problem solve, and apply their knowledge. Keeping this in mind, educators should develop lessons around "core concepts" that require critical thinking and risk taking in the learning process (Donovan & Bransford, 2005 p.18-19).

Community-centered learning environments also support instruction based on the learning sciences. Community centered learning environments "encourage a culture of questioning, respect, and risk taking" (Donovan and Bransford, 2005, p. 13). Teachers should develop a classroom environment that allows students to ask questions, explorer their ideas, collaborate with their classmates and share their ideas.

Learning is central to teaching. Pages 19-21 of //How People Learn// explain the implications of learning sciences for teachers and student success. First, teachers have to work with students' previous learning experiences and understandings that students bring to the classroom. Each student may possess different levels of understanding, and many probably have misconceptions that must be corrected. Then, teachers have to teach in-depth content,meaning the teachers must have successfully learned the content themselves, and then teachers must be able to incorporate meta-cognitive skills into the curriculum.

The science of learning is important for educators because it affects every aspect of teaching and learning, from what is taught to how assessments are done (Bransford et al, 2000). When teachers take into account what prior knowledge and experiences students have, they modify what is taught and even how it is taught based on the needs of their students. Even assessments are done based on the needs of the students.

As educators, we need to be aware of HOW students are learning so that we can better engage them, motivate them, inspire them to take the knowledge they gain and go even further. The following video depicts what teachers are facing as educator in the current classrooms. Through all of the challenges faced as educators there are many options availble to implement a version of the community learning objectives. media type="youtube" key="_A-ZVCjfWf8" height="315" width="420" media type="youtube" key="MyBsRn2vIlE" height="315" width="560"

Though historically what has been learned from research done by learning scientist did not find its way into the classroom in the past couple of decades there has been a shift. Today many districts are implementing practices and programs that are based on research. Part of this may stem from a change in the value placed on standardized testing by the current educational system. According to Bransford, Brown, Cocking, Donovan, and Pellegrino (2000) a “ new theory of learning is coming into focus that leads to very different approaches to the design of curriculum, teaching, and assessment than those often found in schools today”.

Why are the learning sciences important to science and mathematics educators?
Bransford and Donovan (2005) in //How Student’s Learn:// //History, Mathematics, and Science in the Classroom//, apply the learning sciences to science pedagogy. Through these learning sciences educators can teach students to “learn new concepts and theories with understanding; experience the process of inquiry..; and reflect meta-cognitively on their own thinking and participation in scientific inquiry” (p.398).

To achieve these three goals science educators need to recognize and bring out preconceptions about phenomena that occur in the natural world. Bransford and Donovan (2005) posit that some preconceptions are more firmly rooted than others. Bringing out and addressing these preconceptions leads to conceptual change in the way students understands and views these phenomena (Carey, 2000). Carey’s examples in //Science Education as Conceptual Change// (2000) give insight to conceptual change and its affect on educational outcomes in the future. Based on our understanding of students and their preconceptions, Carey proposes the curriculum should be modified to bring about conceptual change. “Many of the components of standard curricula are based on logical sequence of the concepts to be built up; they expose students to phenomena that illustrate the target theory, formal expressions that capture it, and problems that give students practice in using its machinery. These components are part of the solution, but as has been demonstrated again and again, they are not sufficient” (Carey, 2000). The educator can use inquiry experiences to offer new insights to phenomena and at the same time break the logical sequence of the old curriculum. Through inquiry students can bridge old knowledge and new knowledge together. According to Bransford and Donovan, educators need to engage students in “reflective assessment” or other meta-cognitive activities after these phenomena are explored, so “holes in one’s thinking (or bridging) can be patched” (p.407-411). It is also important for teachers to develop an environment where students are comfortable asking questions and taking risks, as suggested by community-centered learning environments. Creativity, an important part of science innovation, is enabled in a supportive community-centered learning environment.

After educators understand what is understood by the students, and how these misconceptions should be addressed, it is important that students experience the process of inquiry. Previous models of science education focus on preexisting "recipes for experiments" that do not actively engage the student in inquiry. Rather these experiences encourage a disconnect between content and inquiry/imagination ( Bransford & Donovan, 2005). Educators should encourage the development of small scientific communities within the classroom that work to discuss, develop, and question the inquiry process. Part of the knowledge-centered focused as presented //How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School// (2000), students should have the opportunity to take the concepts that they learn and "generat[e] good questions and ways to explore them" ( Bransford & Donovan, 2005 p. 414).

When students are allowed to participate in the inquiry process, it is important that they also practice meta-cognition. Through the process of developing a self-reflecting and evaluating skill, students will begin to develop "the particular critical lens through which scientists view the world" ( Bransford & Donovan, 2005 p. 410). In addition to the goal of concept understanding, students should also be able to rigorously question the obvious, test their understandings, and question their own understandings based on the presentation of new information.

Teachers of science have to address student preconceptions not only about science content, but also of how science works while incorporating meta-cognitive processes. Math teachers also must rely more heavily on learning sciences because they must also engage students' preconceptions about math, many of which can be difficult to overcome. While working with students' preconceptions, math teachers also have to teach factual knowledge and conceptual understandings. As with other disciplines, math teachers must also find time to incorporate meta-cognitive skills so that students may begin to engage in self-monitoring.

Students encounter science phenomenon every day and develop explanations for them, whether they are scientifically correct or not (Donovan & Bransford, 2005). As a science teacher, it is important to be aware of those explanations since they will influence instruction. In addition to these encounters with science phenomenon, students also have preconceived ideas about what it means to "do" science. These preconceived notions will also influence science instruction.

=References=

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., Cocking, R.R., Donovan, M.S., Pellegrino, J.W. (Eds.). (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School - Expanded Edition. Retrieved May 30, 2012, from []

Donovan, M.S.& Bransford, J.D. (2005). Introduction. In Committee on How People Learn, A Targeted Report for Teachers, Center for Studies on Behavior Development, & National Research Council (Eds.), //How Students Learn: History, Mathematics, and Science in the Classroom //(p.1-28). Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press. Retrieved May 20, 2012, from []

Fuson, K.C., Kalchman, M., & Bransford, J.D. (2005). Mathematical Understanding: An Introducation. In Committee on How People Learn, A Targeted Report for Teachers, Center for Studies on Behavior Development, & National Research Council (Eds.), //How Students Learn: History, Mathematics, and Science in the classroom //(p.217-256). Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press. Retrieved May 20, 2012, from []

Bransford, J.D. & Donovan, M.S. (2005). Scientific inquiry and how people learn. In Committee on How People Learn, A Targeted Report for Teachers, Center for Studies on Behavior Development, & National Research Council (Eds.), //How Students Learn: History, Mathematics, and Science in the classroom //<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(p.397-419). Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press. Retrieved May 20, 2012, from []

<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Carey, S.(2000). Science education as conceptual change. //Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,// 21(1), p.13-19. Retrieved from []

Committee on How People Learn, A Targeted Report for Teachers, Center for Studies on Behavior Development, & National Research Council. (2005). //How Students Learn: History,Mathematics, and Science in the Classroom//. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Retrieved May 20, 2012, from []